One of the most widely used services in many distributed systems is Essay

One of the most widely used services in many distributed systems is the File Service. Investigate the issue of distributed file systems - Essay Example These challenges will be discussed in this section and also there will be a description of the main architectural features of the Network File System version 4 in relation to its previous versions. Adrian, Teodora and Naiana (2011, p. 801) say that in distributed file systems, caching is an approach that is used to reduce the traffic within the network. Moreover, Tanenbaum and Van Steen (2007, p. 276) emphasize that through catching the reliability and speed of access of data from the server is significantly increased. This means that the users of the system are able to access data with a guarantee of no delays in retrieval. Additionally, caching is aimed at preventing repeated access same data or information. It is through catching that access to data within a system is attained by one user without the redundancy which often results from many users requiring to access, retrieve or modify the same data at the same time. Tanenbaum and Van Steen (2007, p. 277) illustrate that unlike server access, which costs thousands of instructions, cache access is faster as it only costs the client terminal hundreds of instructions. Ainsworth (2009, p. 22) argues that the problem of consiste ncy can be overcome by implementing a write-through technique within the cache policy. The reliability of a write-through cache is relatively high. A delayed write approach may also be used because it saves remote writes, but has relatively poor reliability, especially in situations of a system crash. Caching techniques are designed so that the cached copies of files are presented to the user from the server in an effective manner. Therefore, users have access to the cached copy of files instead of contacting the server directly which mightlead to an overload of the network. According to Dolev and Kat (2005, p. 135), caching presents a challenge of consistency within the processes of file sharing and transfer within a distributed file system. This problem results from the difficulties

Intervention Strategies Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Intervention Strategies - Article Example ne membrane lung disease (now called as a respiratory distress syndrome or RDS) and as a result, was placed on a ventilator for several weeks during the period he was still in the hospital nursery. Paul spoke his first words at 11 months and had his first walk attempts at approximately 14 months. He mostly avoids any of the physical activities as a toddler and as a young kid, preferring more sedentary activities like looking at books or watching cartoon shows on television for some hours on end. He was enrolled in a nursery school at age 5 and had shown great promise during his kindergarten years, as observed by his teacher and reported to his parents. He then showed the first signs of depression and withdrawal from his peers. The intervention strategy selected for Paul is cognitive behavioral therapy (CBT) as it is shown to be effective in a good number of similar cases. CBT combines behavioral therapy and cognitive therapy; it focuses on the etiology of depressive disorders such as low self-esteem and feelings of being overwhelmed due to over-sensitivity on trivial matters, in turn usually caused by emotional maladjustments and dysfunction behaviors (Lehmann & Coady, 2001, p. 176). Paul is entering adolescence which is a period of great changes, both physiologically and emotionally. CBT is focused on his dysfunctional thinking patterns which caused his low self-esteem, brought about by over-simplification (generalization) and magnification (stress on the negatives and ignoring the positives) where everything seems to be extremely very important, urgent or necessary. The intervention therapy tries to cure him by modifying his behavior pattern and at the same time develop mental flexibility by doing away with his unrealistic thoughts due to arbitrary inferences and selective abstractions (Verduyn, Rogers & Wood, 2009, p. 49). Paul showed excellent response to CBT even in just a few weeks after starting therapy. It was emphasized to him that his anxieties and

The True Meaning Of Freedom Philosophy Essay

The True Meaning Of Freedom Philosophy Essay Freedom is one of the central philosophic categories in characterizing the essence of man and his existence. In the history of philosophic idea this conception got over a long evolution process- from negative (meaning freedom from) up to positive (freedom for) theory. The philosophy of freedom was the subject of consideration of I. Kant, G.W.F. Hegel, A. Schopenhauer, J.P. Sartre, F.W. Nietzsche, K.T. Jaspers. The range of insights on this notion starting from the complete negation of the free choice possibility (in the conception of behavior science) up to argumentation escape from freedom in the conditions of modern society is quite wide. It is impossible to underestimate the influence of Humes work on world philosophy. David Hume was a Scottish philosopher, historian, economist, and essayist, known especially for his philosophical empiricism and skepticism. He is considered to be one of the most important figures in the history of the Scottish Enlightenment and Western philosophy. The opinion of David Hume, presented in the book A Treatise of Human Nature appeals to the modern investigations of freedom. Besides, it is considered to be one of the most important books in the history of philosophy. According to the Book II, Part 3, of the Treatise of Human Nature and in section VIII of An Enquiry Concerning Human Understanding, Of Liberty and Necessity Hume sets out his views concerning freedom of the will. The philosopher holds to an opinion of compatibilism, by it he states that all human actions are caused and that all people possess liberty of action. Hume endows humans with the other kind of freedom freedom of will, which occurs to be very complicated, impossible to define notion and gives the following explanation: by the will he means nothing but the inner impression we feel and are conscious of, when we purposefully originate any new motion of our body. One more question worth to be touched is the necessity which makes an essential part of causation, an d accordingly liberty by extracting necessity totals the chance. Liberty or chance in its deep understanding are nothing but a demand of determination, and a certain uncertainty we feel in passing or not passing from the idea of one to that of the other. We have a feeling that our actions are mostly regulated by our will and by thinking that our will itself is subject to nothing we make a big mistake, as by denial of will we are provoked to try we feel and it moves easily every way and makes an impression of itself even on that side on which it didnt settle. The image we persuade ourselves couldnt have been completed into the thing itself. Despite all our caprices and incorrect actions we may perform, the desire of demonstration our liberty is the sole motive of our actions, we can never free ourselves from the bonds of necessity. Hume initiates this discussion between the notions of necessity and freedom by proposing that ambiguities in language have kept interlocutors in the disputes over freedom of the will talking past one another. Actually, according to Hume, all mankind, both learned and illiterate, have always shared the same opinion with regard to this subject, and several intelligible definitions would immediately have set the limit to the whole arguing. Hume sets out to clarify what we can best be understood to mean when we talk about liberty and necessity, and to show that so understood, there is no conflict between them. Discussing the necessity, Hume argues that all our actions are first and foremost caused by necessity, and all our operations are caused by a necessary force, in addition to it every natural effect is dictated by the energy of its cause. It is commonly recognized that the actions of people are mostly uniform and the human nature remains the same according to its principles. It clos ely coincides with the events in the natural world that we draw inferences concerning them. Analyzing our interaction with other people and how we reflect on human activities it seems almost impossible to make our own opinion without recognition of philosophy of necessity. When it refers to liberty of human beings actions, Hume discloses that we shouldnt believe that actions have so little connection with motives, inclinations, and circumstances that one does not link with the other. Any such view of liberty would set at defiance of common and philosophical ways of thinking about humans behavior. Contrariwise, the meaning of liberty is very simple as it is determined by power of acting or not taking actions; according to the determinations of the will; that is, if we choose to remain in the shade, we vice versa; if we choose to move, we also may. Every person who is independent, not a prisoner has this liberty. Hume proves that his opinion on liberty and necessity do not only correspond with each other but also correspond with moral and legal standards. We are too condemning a man for an act caused by a durable trait than a person who behaved under the influence of passing impulsion. And definitely it would be pointless to accuse someone for an action the cause of which lies beyond him or her. Analyzing Humes point on liberty I have come to conclusion we can be free only we have a necessity of determination ourselves in this life. We have a liberty to choose of whether to take actions or to keep out. And in such a way we get our determination, our life principles. Its worth to take into account the opinion of one more eminent philosopher of that time Immanuel Kant. The best idea in Kants philosophy is directed to the study of freedom concept. The detailed research of freedom is given in his book Critique of Pure Reason, the Groundwork for the Metaphysics of Morals, and the Critique of Practical Reason. Kant believed that morality is directly connected with freedom. According to his dogmas: To be free is to follow our own rational principles instead of just our desires to follow our own legislation to act on maxims that we will to be universal laws. Resuming all above said to be free is to be moral. In this way freedom and morality are finally the same enigma. His standpoint is opposed to Humes view that both natural and moral actions must be regarded as part of a single chain of causes, effects and explanations. As a matter of fact, if they were regarded in such a way, and on the assumption that we accept natural causal laws as global and d eterministic, there could be no freedom at all according to Kants moral philosophy. Speaking about free will Kant considered that people are able only to accept it. Judging from his principles I have reached a conclusion that we can only be free by in a positive sense as this freedom is controlled by our morality principles. Those principles will never force us to do bidding of our emotions. In the historic development of freedom notion the idea of creative freedom is gradually replacing the concept of liberty from obstructions casualty, fate. There are a number of points on the question of whether freedom exists, namely, whether people possess a power to make a choice, making a selection from several alternatives or when an act of free will is a case of agent-causation: whereby a person generates an event. The concept of incompatibilism was closely developed by Peter van Inwagen who is an American analytic philosopher and the John Cardinal OHara Professor of Philosophy at the University of Notre Dame. His monograph An Essay on Free Will (1983) illustrates the philosophic understanding of incompatibilism about free will and determinism. Van Inwagens central evidence for this view says that If determinism is true, then our acts are the consequences of the laws of nature and events in the remote past. But it is not up to us what went on before we were born, and neither is it up to us what the laws of nature are. Therefore, the consequences of those things (including our present acts) are not up to us. Van Inwagen gave a profound explanation to what he called a mind argument. It is developed by identifying indeterminism with chance and by debating that if an act that happens by chance is not controlled by a man then it couldnt be completed freely. If free will and determinism co-exist, the n someone has a chance to do something not contained in that one possible future that is connected both with the past and the laws of nature that is the most important argument presented in the Free Will monograph by Van Inwagen. Resuming on Inwagens conclusions I would like to point out that a person can only be free, has free will when he has to choose between two or more mutually incompatible courses of action such that he can, or is able to, or has it within his power to accomplish. It is proved that free will is closely connected with determinism as quite simply the thesis that the past determines a unique future. To my mind, freedom is the present ability of choice from a variety of variants and realization of the event outcome. The lack of such choice and choice realization is equal to the absence of freedom. Analyzing the freedom concept I confine myself with liberalistic approach. In my opinion it implies the deficiency of enforcement from the side of other individuals. Freedom is one of kinds of haphazard manifestation, directed by a free will (purposefulness of the will, recognized freedom) or by the stochastic law (unpredictability of an outcome of event, unconscious freedom). In this sense, the concept of liberty is opposed to the notion of necessity. According to moral philosophy, freedom is connected with the availability of persons free will. The free will imposes an individual with responsibility and imputes his words and actions in a merit. The action is considered ethic if it is conducted by free will, and appears to be a free wills expression of a person. I am fully concerned th at the demand for freedom reveals as a biological response of a humans organism. This point could be supported by the fact that in the whole field of our history people and classes contested against its oppressors without consideration whether there was any hope or not. Properly speaking, the history of mankind turns to be the history of struggle, history of revolution, starting from the liberation war of Israelites against Egyptian people, from national rebellions against the Roman Empire and up to revolutions in the United States of America, France, Russia, China and so on. The hypothesis about a congenital struggle for freedom impulse of a person is supported with the freedom as a background for evolution of all the human abilities, its physical and mental health and, of course, balance. Freedom is the vital biological factor for the persons life, which determines the unobstructed development of the organism. I am upholding to the opinion of Erich Fromm, who considered freedom to be the sense of humans happiness. But if to ponder in the essence of these words, freedom is not a fact, it is surely a process which is impossible without a subject of freedom. If a person does not realize his freedom, he does not possess it. That is why we can be free if we have a choice, an opportunity to realize our choice, when we are independent of the other persons opinion, when we subject to our personal outputs performing a decision making. We can be free when we live our life the way we want and we do not permit anyone else to take a decision in our stead.

William Golding’s main reason to explore the defects of human nature Es

William Golding’s main reason to explore the defects of human nature in his novel Lord of the Flies is to portray the destruction caused when civilization is consumed by DEFECTS OF HUMAN NATURE William Golding’s main reason to explore the â€Å"defects of human nature† in his novel Lord of the Flies is to portray the destruction caused when civilization is consumed by the dark side of human nature. He also wanted to divulge the reactions and behaviors of different types of people under same situations. The four main â€Å"defects of human nature† that is explored in the novel are fear and insecurity, indolence (longing for excitement), being dependent on others and ignorance towards reality. These defects make the boys join Jack’s tribe even though Jack is selfish, quick-tempered and violent. Fear plays an important role not only in the novel but also in our lives as it reflects upon our actions. Everyone reacts differently while experiencing fear or insecurity. Early in the novel, Jack mentions that â€Å"We’ve got to have rules and obey them. After all, we’re not savages. We’re English; and the English are best at everything. So we’ve got to do the right things† (Pg. 42). Later on, when Jack is asking the boys to raise their hands up if they don’t want Ralph as a chief, he endures humiliation as no one raised their hands. It is the fear of being ruled under Ralph which leads Jack to being the chief of the savages. Furthermore, when the â€Å"littl’uns† are afraid of the beast and tell Ralph about it, he denies it as â€Å"there isn’t a beast† (Pg. 35). This is one of the reasons why the boys left Ralph to join Jack’s tribe. Jack gave the boys a way to deal with their fear from the beast. He told the â€Å"littl’uns† that â€Å"fe... ... the only ones who take the signal fire seriously. Later on in the novel, after the feast, Ralph admits that he is responsible for Simon’s death. Piggy refuses to believe it as â€Å"It was dark† and â€Å"It was an accident† (Pg. 173). Though deep inside, Piggy knows that it was murder. Similarly, there are many people in this world who refuse to accept the true facts no matter how obvious they are. As Golding grew up during the war periods, he witnessed these â€Å"defects of human nature†. He explored these defects in the novel Lord of the Flies so that people can relate it to themselves, acknowledge the problem and find solutions for it before civilization is consumed by darkness and ruled by savagery and fear. As mentioned earlier, he hopes that the world unites as soon as possible as he knows that there is no one who can rescue this world from chaos and darkness.

Assembly Language

ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE An assembly language is a low-level programming language for a computer, microcontroller, or other programmable device, in which each statement corresponds to a single machine code instruction. Each assembly language is specific to a particular computer architecture, in contrast to most high-level programming languages, which are generally portable across multiple systems. Assembly language is converted into executable machine code by a utility program referred to as an assembler; the conversion process is referred to as assembly, or assembling the code.Assembly language uses a mnemonic to represent each low-level machine operation or opcode. Some opcodes require one or more operands as part of the instruction, and most assemblers can take labels and symbols as operands to represent addresses and constants, instead of hard coding them into the program. Macro assemblers include a macroinstruction facility so that assembly language text can be pre-assigned to a name, and that name can be used to insert the text into other code. Many assemblers offer additional mechanisms to facilitate program development, to control the assembly process, and to aid debugging.HISTORY OF ASSEMBLY LANGUAGE Assembly languages date to the introduction of the stored-program computer. The EDSAC computer (1949) had an assembler called initial orders featuring one-letter mnemonics. Nathaniel Rochester wrote an assembler for an IBM 701 (1954). SOAP (Symbolic Optimal Assembly Program) (1955) was an assembly language for the IBM 650 computer written by Stan Poley. Assembly languages eliminated much of the error-prone and time-consuming first-generation programming needed with the earliest computers, freeing programmers from tedium such as remembering numeric codes and calculating addresses.They were once widely used for all sorts of programming. However, by the 1980s (1990s on microcomputers), their use had largely been supplanted by high-level languages, in the search for improved programming productivity. Today assembly language is still used for direct hardware manipulation, access to specialized processor instructions, or to address critical performance issues. Typical uses are device drivers, low-level embedded systems, and real-time systems. Historically, a large number of programs have been written entirely in assembly language. Operating systems were ntirely written in assembly language until the introduction of the Burroughs MCP (1961), which was written in ESPOL, an Algol dialect. Many commercial applications were written in assembly language as well, including a large amount of the IBM mainframe software written by large corporations. COBOL, FORTRAN and some PL/I eventually displaced much of this work, although a number of large organizations retained assembly-language application infrastructures well into the '90s. Most early microcomputers relied on hand-coded assembly language, including most operating systems and large applications.This was because these systems had severe resource constraints, imposed idiosyncratic memory and display architectures, and provided limited, buggy system services. Perhaps more important was the lack of first-class high-level language compilers suitable for microcomputer use. A psychological factor may have also played a role: the first generation of microcomputer programmers retained a hobbyist, â€Å"wires and pliers† attitude. In a more commercial context, the biggest reasons for using assembly language were minimal bloat (size), minimal overhead, greater speed, and reliability.Typical examples of large assembly language programs from this time are IBM PC DOS operating systems and early applications such as the spreadsheet program Lotus 1-2-3. Even into the 1990s, most console video games were written in assembly, including most games for the Mega Drive/Genesis and the Super Nintendo Entertainment System. According to some industry insiders, the assembly language was the best computer language to use to get the best performance out of the Sega Saturn, a console that was notoriously challenging to develop and program games for.The popular arcade game NBA Jam (1993) is another example. Assembly language has long been the primary development language for many popular home computers of the 1980s and 1990s (such as the Sinclair ZX Spectrum, Commodore 64, Commodore Amiga, and Atari ST). This was in large part because BASIC dialects on these systems offered insufficient execution speed, as well as insufficient facilities to take full advantage of the available hardware on these systems.Some systems, most notably the Amiga, even have IDEs with highly advanced debugging and macro facilities, such as the freeware ASM-One assembler, comparable to that of Microsoft Visual Studio facilities (ASM-One predates Microsoft Visual Studio). The Assembler for the VIC-20 was written by Don French and published by French Silk. At 1,639 bytes in length, its author believes it is the smallest symbolic assembler ever written. The assembler supported the usual symbolic addressing and the definition of character strings or hex strings.It also allowed address expressions which could be combined with addition, subtraction, multiplication, division, logical AND, logical OR, and exponentiation operators. COMPILER A compiler is a computer program (or set of programs) that transforms source code written in a programming language (the source language) into another computer language (the target language, often having a binary form known as object code). The most common reason for wanting to transform source code is to create an executable program.The name â€Å"compiler† is primarily used for programs that translate source code from a high-level programming language to a lower level language (e. g. , assembly language or machine code). If the compiled program can run on a computer whose CPU or operating system is different from the one on which the compiler r uns, the compiler is known as a cross-compiler. A program that translates from a low level language to a higher level one is a decompiler. A program that translates between high-level languages is usually called a language translator, source to source translator, or language converter.A language rewriter is usually a program that translates the form of expressions without a change of language. A compiler is likely to perform many or all of the following operations: lexical analysis, preprocessing, parsing, semantic analysis (Syntax-directed translation), code generation, and code optimization. Program faults caused by incorrect compiler behavior can be very difficult to track down and work around; therefore, compiler implementors invest significant effort to ensure the correctness of their software.The term compiler-compiler is sometimes used to refer to a parser generator, a tool often used to help create the lexer and parser. INTERPRETER In computer science, an interpreter normall y means a computer program that executes, i. e. performs, instructions written in a programming language. An interpreter may be a program that either 1. executes the source code directly 2. translates source code into some efficient intermediate representation (code) and immediately executes this 3. xplicitly executes stored precompiled code made by a compiler which is part of the interpreter system While interpreting and compiling are the two main means by which programming languages are implemented, these are not fully mutually exclusive categories, one of the reasons being that most interpreting systems also perform some translation work, just like compilers. The terms â€Å"interpreted language† or â€Å"compiled language† merely mean that the canonical implementation of that language is an interpreter or a compiler; a high level language is basically an abstraction which is (ideally) independent of particular implementations.ASSEMBLER Assembler (meaning one that a ssembles) may refer to: It is a computer program that translate between lower-level representations of computer programs; it converts basic computer instructions into a pattern of bits which can be easily understood by a computer and the processor can use it to perform its basic operations Assembly Language Syntax Programs written in assembly language consist of a sequence of source statements. Each source statement consists of a sequence of ASCII characters ending with a carriage return.Each source statement may include up to four fields: a label, an operation (instruction mnemonic or assembler directive), an operand, and a comment. The following are examples of an assembly directive and a regular machine instruction. PORTA equ $0000; Assembly time constant INP ldaa PORTA; Read data from fixed address I/O data port An assembly language statement contains the following fields. Label Field can be used to define a symbol Operation Field defines the operation code or pseudo-op Operand Field specifies either the address or the data.Comment Field allows the programmer to document the software. Sometimes not all four fields are present in an assembly language statement. A line may contain just a comment. The first token in these lines must begin with a star (*) or a semicolon (;). For example, ; This line is a comment * this is a comment too * This line is a comment Instructions with inherent mode addressing do not have an operand field. For example, label clra comment deca comment cli comment inca comment DATA TYPES IN ASSEMBLY LANGUAGEThere is a large degree of diversity in the way the authors of assemblers categorize statements and in the nomenclature that they use. In particular, some describe anything other than a machine mnemonic or extended mnemonic as a pseudo-operation (pseudo-op). A typical assembly language consists of 3 types of instruction statements that are used to define program operations: †¢Opcode mnemonics †¢Data sections †¢Assembly directives Opcode mnemonics and extended mnemonics Instructions (statements) in assembly language are generally very simple, unlike those in high-level language.Generally, a mnemonic is a symbolic name for a single executable machine language instruction (an opcode), and there is at least one opcode mnemonic defined for each machine language instruction. Each instruction typically consists of an operation or opcode plus zero or more operands. Most instructions refer to a single value, or a pair of values. Operands can be immediate (value coded in the instruction itself), registers specified in the instruction or implied, or the addresses of data located elsewhere in storage.This is determined by the underlying processor architecture: the assembler merely reflects how this architecture works. Extended mnemonics are often used to specify a combination of an opcode with a specific operand, e. g. , the System/360 assemblers use B as an extended mnemonic for BC with a mask of 15 and NOP for BC with a mask of 0. Extended mnemonics are often used to support specialized uses of instructions, often for purposes not obvious from the instruction name. For example, many CPU's do not have an explicit NOP instruction, but do have instructions that can be used for the purpose.In 8086 CPUs the instruction xchg ax, ax is used for nop, with nop being a pseudo-opcode to encode the instruction xchg ax, ax. Some disassemblers recognize this and will decode the xchg ax, ax instruction as nop. Similarly, IBM assemblers for System/360 and System/370 use the extended mnemonics NOP and NOPR for BC and BCR with zero masks. For the SPARC architecture, these are known as synthetic instructions Some assemblers also support simple built-in macro-instructions that generate two or more machine instructions.For instance, with some Z80 assemblers the instruction ld hl, bc is recognized to generate ld l, c followed by ld h, b. These are sometimes known as pseudo-opcodes. Data sections There are instructions used to define data elements to hold data and variables. They define the type of data, the length and the alignment of data. These instructions can also define whether the data is available to outside programs (programs assembled separately) or only to the program in which the data section is defined. Some assemblers classify these as pseudo-ops. Assembly directivesAssembly directives, also called pseudo opcodes, pseudo-operations or pseudo-ops, are instructions that are executed by an assembler at assembly time, not by a CPU at run time. They can make the assembly of the program dependent on parameters input by a programmer, so that one program can be assembled different ways, perhaps for different applications. They also can be used to manipulate presentation of a program to make it easier to read and maintain. (For example, directives would be used to reserve storage areas and optionally their initial contents. The names of directives often start with a dot to disti nguish them from machine instructions. Symbolic assemblers let programmers associate arbitrary names (labels or symbols) with memory locations. Usually, every constant and variable is given a name so instructions can reference those locations by name, thus promoting self-documenting code. In executable code, the name of each subroutine is associated with its entry point, so any calls to a subroutine can use its name. Inside subroutines, GOTO destinations are given labels. Some assemblers support local symbols which are lexically distinct from normal symbols (e. . , the use of â€Å"10$† as a GOTO destination). Some assemblers provide flexible symbol management, letting programmers manage different namespaces, automatically calculate offsets within data structures, and assign labels that refer to literal values or the result of simple computations performed by the assembler. Labels can also be used to initialize constants and variables with relocatable addresses. Assembly lang uages, like most other computer languages, allow comments to be added to assembly source code that are ignored by the assembler.Good use of comments is even more important with assembly code than with higher-level languages, as the meaning and purpose of a sequence of instructions is harder to decipher from the code itself. Wise use of these facilities can greatly simplify the problems of coding and maintaining low-level code. Raw assembly source code as generated by compilers or disassemblers—code without any comments, meaningful symbols, or data definitions—is quite difficult to read when changes must be made. MacrosMany assemblers support predefined macros, and others support programmer-defined (and repeatedly re-definable) macros involving sequences of text lines in which variables and constants are embedded. This sequence of text lines may include opcodes or directives. Once a macro has been defined its name may be used in place of a mnemonic. When the assembler p rocesses such a statement, it replaces the statement with the text lines associated with that macro, then processes them as if they existed in the source code file (including, in some assemblers, expansion of any macros existing in the replacement text).Note that this definition of â€Å"macro† is slightly different from the use of the term in other contexts, like the C programming language. C macros created through the #define directive typically are just one line or a few lines at most. Assembler macro instructions can be lengthy â€Å"programs† by themselves, executed by interpretation by the assembler during assembly. Since macros can have ‘short' names but expand to several or indeed many lines of code, they can be used to make assembly language programs appear to be far shorter, requiring fewer lines of source code, as with higher level languages.They can also be used to add higher levels of structure to assembly programs, optionally introduce embedded debu gging code via parameters and other similar features. Macro assemblers often allow macros to take parameters. Some assemblers include quite sophisticated macro languages, incorporating such high-level language elements as optional parameters, symbolic variables, conditionals, string manipulation, and arithmetic operations, all usable during the execution of a given macro, and allowing macros to save context or exchange information.Thus a macro might generate a large number of assembly language instructions or data definitions, based on the macro arguments. This could be used to generate record-style data structures or â€Å"unrolled† loops, for example, or could generate entire algorithms based on complex parameters. An organization using assembly language that has been heavily extended using such a macro suite can be considered to be working in a higher-level language, since such programmers are not working with a computer's lowest-level conceptual elements.Macros were used to customize large scale software systems for specific customers in the mainframe era and were also used by customer personnel to satisfy their employers' needs by making specific versions of manufacturer operating systems. This was done, for example, by systems programmers working with IBM's Conversational Monitor System / Virtual Machine (VM/CMS) and with IBM's â€Å"real time transaction processing† add-ons, Customer Information Control System CICS, and ACP/TPF, the airline/financial system that began in the 1970s and still runs many large computer reservations systems (CRS) and credit card systems today.It was also possible to use solely the macro processing abilities of an assembler to generate code written in completely different languages, for example, to generate a version of a program in COBOL using a pure macro assembler program containing lines of COBOL code inside assembly time operators instructing the assembler to generate arbitrary code. This was because, as wa s realized in the 1960s, the concept of â€Å"macro processing† is independent of the concept of â€Å"assembly†, the former being in modern terms more word processing, text processing, than generating object code.The concept of macro processing appeared, and appears, in the C programming language, which supports â€Å"preprocessor instructions† to set variables, and make conditional tests on their values. Note that unlike certain previous macro processors inside assemblers, the C preprocessor was not Turing-complete because it lacked the ability to either loop or â€Å"go to†, the latter allowing programs to loop.Despite the power of macro processing, it fell into disuse in many high level languages (major exceptions being C/C++ and PL/I) while remaining a perennial for assemblers. Macro parameter substitution is strictly by name: at macro processing time, the value of a parameter is textually substituted for its name. The most famous class of bugs resul ting was the use of a parameter that itself was an expression and not a simple name when the macro writer expected a name.In the macro: foo: macro a load a*b the intention was that the caller would provide the name of a variable, and the â€Å"global† variable or constant b would be used to multiply â€Å"a†. If foo is called with the parameter a-c, the macro expansion of load a-c*b occurs. To avoid any possible ambiguity, users of macro processors can parenthesize formal parameters inside macro definitions, or callers can parenthesize the input parameters.

Print Media Versus Electronic Media Relations Essay

Print media today is still considered to be the number one medium for public relations practitioners, despite the recent progress were seeing in electronic media and especially the Internet. Public relations practitioners channel any pertinent information through the media in order to send it to its target audiences or shareholders in the company. Public relations professionals mostly deal with print media. Print media is considered an important function for public relations professionals because many newspaper and magazine agencies use new releases. Before the terrible attacks on the World Trade Center in New York City on September 11, 2001 newspaper readership had been steadily declining in the United States and the rest of the world. After September 11, 2001 newspapers readership had improved as well the media’s image. Americans suddenly wanted to know to be informed about world affairs, specifically the war on terror and protecting our nation. From â€Å"The Practice of Public Relations† book: 49% considered the media â€Å"highly professional,† compared to 73% after 9/11, 59% considered the media â€Å"politically biased,† compared to 47% after 9/11, and 35% believed the news media â€Å"don’t care† about the people they report on, while 47% found them compassionate. Based on a study done by the U.S. Industry & Market Outlook there are 30,700 printing companies in the United States. As for magazines 17,321 are published in the United States according to the National Directory of Magazines. Furthermore magazine readership has seen an increase in its readership. Now I will begin discussing publicity and its relevance. First, off publicity is known as the conscious attempt to manage the public’s perception of a subject. Publicity is achieved by directly working with media. In addition, publicity is understood a more powerful method than advertising. Advertising cost a lot of money. Think about it a full-page ad in the New York Times or Wall Street Journal could cost a company or an individual thousands of dollars. Publicity cost compared to advertising are very low, it merely  costs a company their time and effort to create. Publicity is considered to be more credible than advertising because it’s similar to a third-party endorsement. Its thought of as â€Å"news† so most people will trust it. There are six reasons why publicity works well for an organization. First one is when announcing a new product or service. Like I said earlier publicity is deemed as news so utilizing publicity before advertising is crucial. Second, publicity can be advantageous when recognizing an old product. Third reason is when explaining a complicated product. This means its tough to explain a multifaceted product in an advertisement because advertisements are limited. Companies cannot possibly fit everything they want into a brief advertisement so they devise a publicity stunt such as a staged event to discuss complex products or services. Fourth value of publicity for any organization is little or no budget. This suggests that companies with small budgets cannot afford to devote there time to advertising, so they turn to publicity, which is rather inexpensive and exceptionally effective. The fifth value of publicity is enhancing the organization’s reputation. This in my opinion is very important job for public relations practitioners. The best way to promote or enhance an organization’s reputation is through publicity and not through advertising because it is self-serving and very ineffective. The last reason why publicity makes good sense for any organization is during a crisis. According to our textbook publicity techniques are the fastest and most credible means of response during a crisis. This is also known as damage control, companies frequently choose this route when a crisis occurs. Now I will discuss another form of public relations that’s taken part of print media, propaganda. First off the purpose of propaganda is to influence people’s opinion and manipulate people to change their behavior, rather than to communicate the facts about something. The early uses of propaganda can be traced all the way back in 1600’s. The Catholic Church used propaganda to inform and persuade the public. Back during those days the term propaganda did not have the same negative connotation like it has today. Propaganda also was used during the days that led to the American Revolution. Thomas Paine, Samuel Adams and many others participated in propagating anti-British  information to the rest of the colonies. Common examples where propaganda can be easily found in newspapers, magazines, pamphlets, government reports, news reports, books, posters, and even art work. Next topic that I will discuss is how to pitch publicity successfully. The public relations textbook outlines 10 rules or tips on how to achieve publicity after writing a release. First tip is to know deadlines. Time means everything especially for newspapers. They need stories sent to them at a precise time so they can follow up on the story to make sure its not phony. Second tip is to write to them directly, do not call. Reporters have a great deal deadlines to make, they don’t need another person calling following up on there release. Therefore, writing them a letter is preferable and considered proper etiquette. The third is to direct the release to a specific person or editor. It would behoove any person sending releases to a newspaper to write which department or specific editor needs to see your release. The reason to direct your release to a specific person is because newspapers consist of many departments and even more reporters and writers. Next one is similar to the last one, which is to determine how the reporter wants to be contacted. This shows the reporter that you care about his or her preferences. Something not to do is to badger an editor to get your story to be published. This is a wrong tactic and it wont further your cause. Badgering could only lead to worse results in the future. The next two are to use exclusives but be careful and make sure you do your own calling. Making your own calls instead of letting an assistant to it is a sign of respect. The next suggestions are to not send clips of other stories about your client and to develop a relationship. Developing a good professional relationship is key to accomplishing things. The better you know a reporter the more successful your company will be. The last rule and in my opinion the most important job for a public relations practitioner is to never lie. Once they lose trust in you the relationship is severed and pretty much over. All in all print media is still regarded as the strongest medium for public relations professionals. Print media can be achieved through publicity and advertising. Organizations should always consider publicity before  advertising because it offers some positive benefits. Furthermore propaganda is the spreading of ideas and information for the purposes of inducing or manipulating behavior. For the most part people believe propaganda is usually false, which isn’t necessary true. The last topic I wrote about was how to pitch publicity effectively to reporters; these rules were outlined in our textbook. Electronic media has become king in the twenty-first century. Fifty percent of the nation gets their news from television. Today there are more then the big three networks. Cable television has become a monster itself with many channels devoted to news twenty-four hours a day and seven days a week such as CNN, Fox News Channel, and MSNBC. The internet is also a very fast growing media for people to get their news, especially for teenagers and people in their twenties. Radio also falls under electronic media. Talk radio is also big in today’s nation with many popular radio hosts such as Rush Limbaugh, Howard Stern, and Dr. Laura Schlessinger. But what makes news media so popular? Is it the right here and right now mindset that the people of today have? There are many things that contribute to this. These next couple of paragraphs is going to explore electronic media and public relations of public media. People love to watch TV. I believe I mentioned earlier that fifty percent of the nation gets their news from television. The fact is that most people get their news from the television. The reason this is that there is non-stop bombardment of news and talk shows on at all times. There are even specific news series and channels that specialize in a certain part of the news such as ESPN for sports coverage, Bloomberg TV for stock market coverage, and Entertainment Tonight for the latest celebrity gossip. These specialty television shows have grown together with the growth of cable television. There are so many different news agencies out there now trying to break the big story that public relations representatives for companies are working over time to make sure that their company is not under attack from a nosey reporter trying to rise in the ranks. It is a recurring nightmare for the public relations department of many big corporations. Katie Couric has a great quote on the subject that sums it all up very nicely: â€Å"Some news  coverage has become more salacious, more sensationalistic, less intelligent, more giving people what they want to hear or what you think they want to hear, rather than what you think they need to or should ideally hear.† Because of news shows being on all the time, there is one very important thing that every public relations people should know how to do and that is handle a television interview. If a public relations person does not know what they are doing when being interviewed, they can potentially hurt the company that they are supposed to be representing. There are many different do’s and don’ts that should be remembered when participating in an interview but I am going to skip right down to the most important part. The biggest two things you need to remember when being interviewed is be honest and be prepared. Television publicity is not always a bad thing. Since most people get their news from television, companies usually will want to take advantage of this phenomenon and go to the general public through television. The way companies do this is through the video news release. The people in public relations most often use the video news release for breaking news. Breaking news video releases are sent by satellite directly to a news agency. There is also another type of video news release that is not for breaking news, which is called evergreen video news releases. Evergreen video news releases are often sent to broadcasters on a cassette. This is the case because of the fact that an evergreen video news release is not necessarily as important so time is usually not an issue. Video news releases are very important for the person who works in public relations. There are many important guidelines to video news releases that should be kept in mind while one is being produced. One of the most important things about producing a video news release is localizing it. A VNR will more likely be used if it can be tailored for specific areas. Another thing that should be remembered about VNRs is that a good VNR tells a story. It does need to be a story tailored to the television viewer. This means that the VNR should be short and to the point with sound bites and graphics. It should appear as if the VNR is just like any other piece of  news on the station. A VNR should not be produced if there is nothing to see. If there is no video or no pictures, then it is a waste of time and money. People will not watch it so broadcasting corporations will not even bother to pick it up. There are some downsides and risks to VNRs. I say risks because just like movies at the movie theater, there are going to be some flops. And also just like movies, VNR producers can lose large amounts of money. A public relations person should make sure that a VNR is needed before producing one. The VNR should also be expensive. Do not cheapen the VNR and cut corners because the broadcasting corporations will recognize this and not waste their airtime. Public relations people should also realize that there are other ways to get the news out to the public. Just because something needs to be reported to the public does not mean that a VNR should be used. Some analysis needs to be taken into consideration to make sure that the VNR is actually the right way to distribute the information. There are some controversies on whether VNRs are an accurate and undeceiving form of news yet overall the VNR is an effective way to get an important message to millions of people. Another form of electronic media that is important for all people that practice public relations is the public service announcements. A public service announcement is basically just a long commercial that is played for no cost. The organizations that use these most often are the ones of the non-profit sort or of corporations that are doing non-profit activities to better their public image. Although public service announcements are on television, they are not seen by many except for the night owls. Most, but not all, of the public service announcements are run between midnight and 6:00AM. This is due to the fact that companies need commercials that bring in revenue and since public service announcements do not do that, they often do not get the prime time spots. Most public service announcements are like commercials that try to get the viewer to take a specific course of action. They are not nearly as significant as the video news release from a public relations standpoint. The radio is the last electronic media that will be talked about. Talk radio has become huge in the United States. Twenty-two percent of Americans listen to talk radio according to Scarborough Research. The growth of talk radio can be pinpointed to two reasons. The first is that many more people now work at home. This is because of the rapid growth of technology. People no longer need to go to the office because they can finish all their work at home. The second reason that talk radio has grown is the fact that people drive all the time. Since it is very dangerous to watch television while driving, most people listen to the radio while getting from point A to point B. There are now talk shows on just about any subject you could possibly be interested in from sports to hypnotism to conspiracy theories. People like to listen to talk radio because it is â€Å"real†. Talk show hosts say what they want to say and are paid to have an opinion. Talk shows are also interactive. It gives the people that listen to the show a voice. You can call in and give your opinion on the matter as well. AM talk radio is dominated by conservative viewpoints such as Rush Limbaugh, a pioneer in talk radio. Talk radio can also be very controversial so media directors need to be very selective, careful, and prepared if planning to be on a talk radio program. Because television and radio have become such a big part of everyday life in the United States, public relations people need to be aware of it and use it to the fullest potential. News on electronic media is a here and now type of media. News needs to be short and pointed to make sure that the viewer does not lose interest. Electronic media is the future so public relations people should be exploring the opportunities now.

A Fight for Racial and Gender Equality Professor Ramos Blog

A Fight for Racial and Gender Equality Emma Hurtado English 261 25 February 2019    â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† by Charlotte Perkins Gilman shows the harsh realities of what life was like for some women. Although women were beginning to experience some freedom, their husbands still had a say in what they did, which means they wouldn’t take into consideration what their wives wanted or needed. It is learned that the narrator is suffering from mental illness who feels that she would be better off experiencing freedom and going out to help with her illness. Unfortunately, her husband John, who also happens to be her doctor, feels that it is best to isolate her in her room with very little outside contact. Although she tries to voice her feelings and opinions, she is quickly shut down by John. By the end of the story, the wallpaper has driven her insane, making her feel as though the wallpaper has actually trapped women which symbolizes how she feels about her marriage. Society has come a long way since this story was written, but the conflict presented in â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper† is still one that is relevant today. Society has managed to find a way to continue oppressing women in a way that is detrimental to women’s health and their children. The difference between both conflicts presented is the difference in social class and racial group. Charlotte Perkins Gilman writes from the perspective of a white woman who belongs a rich, upper middle class. Gilman’s purpose for writing this story was to share her experiences in hopes of changing the future for all women. This goal of hers was accomplished, but to a certain extent. Although society has progressed a lot since the late 1890’s, we can still see this conflict today in lower-income families and communities. There are groups of women who are still struggling with their mental and physical health due to not being listened to by their health care professionals. Great strides have been made in the last hundred years, but there are still various consequences that have resulted from the original conflict presented in â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†. The lives of women of color are still at risk today, regardless of their economic status. The connection between both conflicts is the internalized racism and misogyny that is still alive and present in society today. Some of the ways in which Gilman’s story is interesting is because of the way the narrator does not have a name and also because it only focuses on what life was like for women who belonged to an upper class. The narrator having no name really stands out and it seems that Gilman chose to do this to represent the rest of women in society at the time, not just one specific group of women. The narrator doesn’t want to acclimate to a life where she won’t get the help she needs or won’t be able to engage in the activities she enjoys doing. She notices how the women in her life are unlike her, in which they are willing to do whatever their husbands and society tell them to. She is cautious around Jennie, her sister-in-law, because she believes Jennie â€Å"thinks it is the writing† that made the narrator sick (Gilman 423). The narrator had to hide who she was and what she did because she feared that her own family would send her away to Weir Mitchell to receive a different kind of treatment. This conflict is not unusual today and still exists for women of color and lower income families. Although today the situation is different, society has managed to find a way to continue to oppress women in certain communities. One consequence of this is that â€Å"African American women are three to four times more likely to die from childbirth than non-Hispanic white women, and socioeconomic status, education, and other factors do not protect against this disparity† (Novoa and Taylor). There are several different factors that come into play, but one of the main ones is mental health. â€Å"Maternal mental health issues among African American women are largely underreported† (Novoa and Taylor). For a number of different reasons, most women aren’t able to ask for help just like the narrator in Gilman’s story and the results have shown that it has taken a toll on these women and their families. In â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper†, the narrator conceals her pain and suffering because of the way society views women as being incapable of expressing their needs. At the beginning of the story, the narrator reveals how â€Å"John laughs at me, of course, but one expects that in marriage† which shows the way in which this kind of toxic behavior is normalized (Gilman 419). Because of these expectations, it shows why she would avoid bringing up anything regarding her mental health. At one point in the story when discussing the narrator’s recovery, she tries to divert the subject to talk about her mental health but as soon as she began, she stopped short, for he sat up straight and looked at me with such a stern, reproachful look that I could not say another word† (Gilman 425). This kind of conflict can still be seen today in a hospital where some women continue to receive horrible care. In both of these situations, the husband and doctors would be expected to do everything in their power to help these women, but unfortunately it does not work out too well for either group. A recent incident from 2016 shows how an African-American woman Simone Landrum experienced a difficult pregnancy but â€Å"she recalls, her doctor told her to lie down - and calm down† making her feel as if â€Å"he threw me away† (Villarosa). Unfortunately, a few days after being sent home, she was back in the hospital with the exact same pain but this time it resulted in her losing the child and the nurses mentioned that she was sick and â€Å"very lucky to be alive† (Villarosa). Both the narrator and Landrum were trying to receive the help they needed from the doctors but instead they were ignored which resulted in the narrator going insane and Landrum losing her baby. Gilman was criticizing the way men would belittle not just women’s health, but also any other small detail about their lives. Women weren’t regarded as equals because men were always the ones who held power in society. Much has changed as shown in current events, but not enough are focusing on all women and the different struggles they experience. One of the struggles that is common now are black women during their pregnancies. The conflict in the story was originally targeted towards all women but now it is much more common in lower social and economic classes and colored women. According to collected data, Kacey Eichelberger states that â€Å"black women face across their reproductive lives and conclude that these outcomes are not only statistically significant, but morally significant and fundamentally unjust† (Eichelberger 1771). These women experience twice as many risks than a white or Hispanic woman would. There are several factors as to why these risks are occurring much more often for black women, such as little access to healthcare. It seems that Gilman would have wanted to achieve gender equity with her story, but it is also important to prioritize racial equity in a situation like this. With the ending of the story and how the narrator ended up going insane, Gilman was trying to show the harm that would occur when medical professionals refuse to acknowledge women and their cries for help and why it is important to care for mothers and pregnant women. She knew she had the responsibility to do what’s right and express how unjust society was back then. Despite having to suffer through her mental illness, Gilman never gave up on trying to make a change whether it was for just one woman or all of them. Although we have come a long way from where we once were, we still have a long way to go before we can say that all women are regarded equally.    Eichelberger, Kacey Y., et al. â€Å"Black Lives Matter: Claiming a Space for Evidence- Based Outrage in Obstetrics and Gynecology.† American Journal Of Public Health, vol. 106, no. 10, Oct. 2016, pp. 1771–1772. EBSCOhost, Novoa, Cristina, and Jamila Taylor. â€Å"Exploring African Americans High Maternal and Infant Death Rates.† Center for American Progress Gilman, Charlotte. â€Å"The Yellow Wallpaper.† Literature: The Human Experience. Edited by Richard Abcarian, Marvin Klotz, Samuel Cohen, Bedford/St. Martin’s, 2000 pp. 419-431. Tunà §alp, Ãâ€"zge, et al. â€Å"Listening to Women’s Voices: The Quality of Care of Women Experiencing Severe Maternal Morbidity, in Accra, Ghana.† PLoS ONE, vol. 7, no. 8, Aug. 2012, pp. 1–8. EBSCOhost, doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0044536.